« Tokyo
Chiang Mai »

Bangkok

, known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon.

In the span of over two hundred years, has been the political, social and of not only but for much of South East and as well. Its influence in the arts, politics, fashion, education, entertainment as well as being the business, financial and cultural center of has given the status of a . The city’s mix of Thai, Chinese, Indian, Buddhist, Muslim and combined with the driving force of the makes it increasingly attractive to foreigners both for business and pleasure and has made the city one of the ’s top tourist destinations.

is the ’s 22nd largest city by population with approximately registered 8,160,522 residents (July 2007), but due to large unregistered influxes of migrants from the North East of and of many nations across , the population of greater is estimated at nearly 15 million people. This has in turn shifted the country from being a rather homogenous Thai population to increasingly a more of Western, Indian and Chinese people. The capital is of the heavily urbanized triangle of central and eastern region of which stretches from Nakhon Ratchasima along to the industrialized eastern seaboard.

The six other provinces: Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, and Nakhon Pathom and all five provinces are joined in the of the Metropolitan Area.
Contents

History

Main article: History of

The town of (บางกอก (help·info)) began as a small trading center and port community on the west bank of the serving the Ayutthaya Kingdom, the precursor of modern which existed from 1350 to 1767. It is believed that the town’s name derived from either Makok, being the Central Thai name for towns or villages situated on the bank of a river, and makok (มะกอก) being the Thai name of either Spondias pinnata, Spondias mombin or Elaeocarpus hygrophilus (plants producing olive-like fruits), or Koh, koh meaning “island,” a reference to the area’s landscape which was carved by rivers and canals.
Wat Phra Kaew was constructed as of the Grand Palace complex at the founding of the capital.
Wat Phra Kaew was constructed as of the Grand Palace complex at the founding of the capital.

After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Kingdom in 1767, the newly declared King Taksin established a new capital in the area of then-, which became known as Thonburi. When Taksin’s reign ended in 1782, King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke reconstructed the capital on the east bank of the river and gave the city a ceremonial name (see below) which became shortened to its current official name, Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (which, similarly to “Los Angeles” means “city of angels”). The new city, however, also inherited the name , which continued to be used by foreigners to refer to the entire city and became its official English name, while in Thai the name still refers only to the old district on the west bank of the river. The city has since vastly modernized and undergone numerous changes, including the introduction of transportation and utility infrastructure in the reigns of King Mongkut and King Chulalongkorn, and quickly developed into the of .

[edit] Full name

The full ceremonial name of the city given by King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke, and later edited by King Mongkut, is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahinthara Yuthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom Udomratchaniwet Mahasathan Amon Piman Awatan Sathit Sakkathattiya Witsanukam Prasit (Thai: กรุงเทพ มหานคร อมรรัตนโกสินทร์ มหินทรายุธยามหาดิลกภพ นพรัตน์ราชธานี บุรีรมย์อุดมราชนิเวศน์มหาสถาน อมรพิมานอวตารสถิต สักกะทัตติยะวิษณุกรรมประสิทธิ์, listen (help·info)). This ceremonial name is composed in combination of two ancient Indian languages, Pāli and Sanskrit. According to the romanisation of these languages, it can actually be written as Krung-dēvamahānagara amararatanakosindra mahindrayudhyā mahātilakabhava navaratanarājadhānī purīramya utamarājanivēsana mahāsthāna amaravimāna avatārasthitya shakrasdattiya vishnukarmaprasiddhi. It translates to “The city of angels, the great city, the eternal jewel city, the impregnable city of God Indra, the grand capital of the endowed with nine precious gems, the happy city, abounding in an enormous Royal Palace that resembles the heavenly abode where reigns the reincarnated god, a city given by Indra and built by Vishnukam”.

Local school children are taught the full name, although few can explain its meaning because many of the words are archaic, and unknown to all but a few. Most Thais who do recall the full name do so as a result of its use in a popular song, Krung Thep Mahanakhon (1989) by Asanee-Wasan Chotikul and will often recount it by recalling the song at the same time, much in the same way that English speakers might sing the alphabet song while reciting the English alphabet.

The full name of the city is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the ’s longest place name.[1]

[edit] Geography

The special administrative area covers 1,568.7 km2 (606 sq mi), making it the 68th largest province in . Much of the area is considered the city of , therefore making it one of the largest cities in the .[3] The , which stretches 372 km (231 mi), is ’s main geographical feature. The basin, the area surrounding , and the nearby provinces comprise a series of plains and river deltas that lead into the Bay of about 30 km (19 mi) south of the city center. This gave rise to ’s appellation as the “Venice of the East” due to the number of canals and passages that divide the area into separate patches of land. The city once used these canals, which were plentiful within itself, as divisions for city districts. However, as the city grew in the second half of the 20th century, the plan was abandoned and a different system of division was adopted.

lies about two meters (6.5 ft) above sea level, which causes problems for the protection of the city against floods during the monsoon season. Often after a downpour, water in canals and the river overflows the banks, resulting in massive floods. The Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has recently installed higher planks alongside some canals to keep water levels from reaching street level. There are however some downsides for ’s extensive canal routes, as the city is rumored to be sinking an average of two inches a year as it lies entirely on a swamp.[4] Some reports say that the city is sinking as much as four inches (102 mm) a year, and this combined with the rising sea level will leave under 50 cm (20 in) to 100 cm (39 in) of water by 2025.[citation needed]

has a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification system. Average temperatures in the city are about 2 °C (36 °F) higher than the ones shown for the Don Mueang Airport at 1960-1990 period. Absolute maxima is 40.8 °C (105.4 °F) and absolute minima is 9.9 °C (49.8 °F). The coldest temperatures were recorded in January 1924, January 1955, January 1974 and December 1999. The coldest daytime maximum temperature was 22.3 °C (72 °F), recorded in December 1999. Hailstorms are virtually unheard of in the city, with only one having been recorded in the past fifty years[5]

[edit] Districts
Chinatown
Chinatown
as seen from Baiyoke Tower II
as seen from Baiyoke Tower II
The Baiyoke Tower II, the tallest building in and
The Baiyoke Tower II, the tallest building in and

See also: List of districts in
See also: List of tallest buildings in

has 50 districts or khet, which mark the administrative subdivisions under the authority of the Metropolitan Administration. These are further subdivided into 154 khwaeng (แขวง), roughly equivalent to sub-districts tambon in the other provinces.

1. Phra Nakhon
2. Dusit
3. Nong Chok
4. Rak
5. Khen
6. Kapi
7. Pathum Wan
8. Pom Prap Sattru Phai
9. Phra Khanong
10. Min Buri
11. Lat Krabang
12. Yan Nawa
13. Samphanthawong
14. Phaya Thai
15. Thon Buri
16. Yai
17. Huai Khwang
18. Khlong San
19. Taling Chan
20. Noi
21. Khun Thian
22. Phasi Charoen
23. Nong Khaem
24. Rat Burana
25. Phlat

26. Din Daeng
27. Bueng Kum
28. Sathon
29. Sue
30. Chatuchak
31. Kho Laem
32. Prawet
33. Khlong Toei
34. Suan Luang
35. Chom Thong
36. Don Mueang
37. Ratchathewi
38. Lat Phrao
39. Watthana
40. Khae
41. Lak Si
42. Sai Mai
43. Khan Na Yao
44. Saphan Sung
45. Wang Thonglang
46. Khlong Sam Wa
47. Na
48. Thawi Watthana
49. Thung Khru
50. Bon

However, these district areas might not accurately represent functional divisions of ’s neighborhoods. Throughout the years, has grown from a city scattered along the river to a metro area that spans as many as six provinces. The city’s main business districts and residential areas are continuously expanding. The influx of foreigners from Western countries as well as immigrants from neighboring Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and many other Asian countries along with the growth of the Thai population has stemmed hundreds of housing projects around the metro area, developing communities along the outskirts. Within years, these communities are engulfed by the greater and become another of this urban jungle.

The most important business districts of include Silom, Bangrak, Pinklao, Sathon, Phra Ram 2, Phetchaburi, Phra Nakhon, Pathumwan, Chatuchak (New CBD), and Phra Ram 3 (New Financial Centre).

As the city expanded on the outskirts, the inner city has nowhere to grow but up. The city has a registered 1,000 skyscrapers and ranks 17th as the ’s tallest city.[6] This does not include hundreds of new buildings predicted as of the construction boom in 2007 and the coming years. Areas such as Silom-Sathon and Asok have for decades been ’s business center. From 1985 to 1996, experienced the ’s highest growth rates and underwent an economic transformation, went through dramatic changes.[citation needed] The Ratchadaphisek area was turned into a business district which continued through the Asok area up north for five kilometers (3 mi). The Sukhumvit area, stretching 15-20 km (9–12 mi), gradually turned into a mixed commercial and residential area. Wireless Road and Chitlom are where some of ’s most expensive land plots exist. of the British Embassy on the corner of Wireless and Rama I Roads, nine rai or approximately 14,400 m2 (155,000 sq ft) in area, was sold for USD 92 million or THB 3.24 billion, and is the most expensive single sale of land in Thai record.[citation needed]

’s Phra Nakhon district alongside Dusit is where most governmental agencies and ministries have their offices. Most of the well-known tourist attractions are also in this particular area due its cultural & historical heritage. It is a no-skyscraper designated zone to preserve the area where some buildings are as old as itself.[citation needed] This of is perhaps the most popular for tourists as most notable attractions such as the Grand Palace, Wat Pho, the Democracy Monument, the Giant Swing, Sanam Luang and other venues are located here. Thon Buri also has its fair share of historic monuments mainly located near the river, such as Wat Arun. The Victory Monument in is one of the city’s biggest bus destinations. Although not officially a bus depot, its location in the centre of city transits as many as 20 bus lines as well as a BTS Skytrain station. Starting from Victory Monument , Phahonyothin road early sois are occupied by Ministries, Government agencies, commercial buildings as well as upper-middle class residential areas. Further to the north, after the Lat Phrao/Phahonyothin intersection, the Northern Corridor is an expanding business district, where the famous Elephant Building can be found.

’s north and eastern areas are primarily residential areas for middle class residents of . Whereas the inner city often has small apartments and low rises for poor immigrants, Lat Phrao and Si Nakharin offer residential compounds and townhouses. The two areas cover as much as 100 km2 (40 sq mi) to 150 km2 (60 sq mi) each, and have turned into what is now of as more suburban housing developments sprawl further out to the east and north. The west of in Thon Buri is another growing area, approaching the degree of development experienced by the north and east. Airport in the east is seen as a jump start for the eastern expansion of as Don Mueang was for the north.

Ratchaprasong is at the forefront of ’s shopping scene. The newly renovated Central Plaza intends to serve as a square to Bangkokians. Just up the street is Siam Square, similar to Shinjuku in Tokyo and Oxford Street and Piccadilly Circus in . The Sukhumvit area also serves as a shopping district for foreigners. The popular Chatuchak Weekend Market in the north of the city is where many people head for cheap, used and high quality products.

’s poorest districts are spread throughout the city. However, the most concentrated area is just north of the Port of at the turn of the . For an area of 10 square kilometres (4 sq mi), the Khlong Toei district houses one of the poorest areas in the country with half-built houses and midrises for immigrants and workers from the northeast Isan provinces.

[edit] Green zones and major parks
Chatuchak Park
Chatuchak Park
Lumphini Park appears as an oasis of greenery among ’s skyscrapers.
Lumphini Park appears as an oasis of greenery among ’s skyscrapers.

has large sections of greenery either preserved by the Department of National Forestry or designated as green zones. The city however, continues to lack a green belt development as economic activity continues to pour into the capital, resulting in massive housing projects along the suburbs. However, in recent years, there has been a stronger voice towards preserving the environment containing population within the city.[citation needed]

is known for its large green sections within the city centre, including the large forest park between Yannawa and Samut Prakan. This of the city covers an area of over 50 km2 (19 sq mi). and is intended to buffer the CBD from the large industries of the west and south of Metropolitan . Other areas include Bung Makkasan, an urban city buffer for residences, sections of many major roads which have unbuilt swamps and green fields. Some of these areas are intentionally undeveloped for protecting against urbanization, while others are land lost during the Asian Financial Crisis.

Lumphini Park is regionally famous. Renowned as ’s Central Park, it was built in the early 1920s by Rama VI with this intent. It has since been used to hold grand pageants, ceremonies of the Thai constitution, and was a camp for Japanese soldiers during War II. The park’s primary function is now for recreational purposes, and it is one of the most visited parks, especially on weekdays.[citation needed] On Sundays, the western gates are open for runners to run on to Silom Road. The park is normally closed at night due to the incidences of vandalism, robberies and murders reported. Chatuchak Park and Rama IX Park are two of ’s largest parks. The two, built in the past 50 years cater to ’s suburban population are enormous and include botanic gardens, sports clubs and complexes, English/French/Japanese gardens and parks as well as large ponds and lakes. Other famous parks include Queen Sirikit Park near Lat Yao, Benchasiri Park on Sukhumvit, Saranrom Park across the Grand Palace, Sanam Luang, Suan Romaneenat, and Dusit Park.

[edit] Economy
This article or section needs to be updated.
Please update the article to reflect recent events / newly available information, and remove this template when finished.

is the of , dominating the country’s economy and dwarfing other urban centers. Development continues to pour in to mostly neglecting the rest of the nation. In 2005, it produced a GDP (PPP) of about USD 220 billion, which accounts for 44 percent of the country’s GDP. Its GDP (PPP) per capita is well over USD 20,000, one of the highest in , although statistics do not reveal the extent of the vast differences in wealth between haves and have nots. The Stock Exchange of is located in with over 536 listed companies and combined market capitalization of about THB 6 trillion (USD 200 billion) as of 31 January 2007. Due to the large amount of foreign representation, has for several years been a mainstay of the Asian economy and a key center in Asian business. In the recent mini-crash known as Black Tuesday, the SET lost over THB 800 billion or USD 25 billion in value, causing markets in the - to fall and causing a global impact on 17 December 2006. The loss of market valuation evoked fears of a repeat of the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997; however, a partial policy reversal saw market gaining back nearly all of the value lost.

is home to the headquarters of all ’s large commercial banks and financial institutions; 27 financial institutions hold at least USD 1 billion in total assets. Their bank deposits totaled approximately THB 9.6 trillion (USD 314 billion) at the end of the third quarter in 2007. Many transnational companies operate regional headquarters in because the cost of operation in the city is less than in most cities in . Thirteen -based companies are on the Forbes 2000 list, including the largest Thai bank, Bank, and the country’s largest energy company PTT.

Tourism is a significant contributor to ’s economy, providing about 5 percent of GDP. is ’s principal international gateway and a destination in its own right.

Income inequality of ’s residents is significant, especially between relatively unskilled lower-income immigrants from rural provinces in and neighboring countries and middle class professionals (45% of registered residents), business elites, and retired and working foreign expats. About 7 percent of ’s population (excluding illegal immigrants who constitute about 5-8 percent of population) lives below the poverty line compared to the national average of 9 percent.

[edit] Demographics

The 2005 Statistics report by the BMA Data Center notes a registered population of 5,658,953.[7] However, this figure does not take into account the many unregistered residents. Recently, has experienced a large influx of foreign immigrants, long-term residents, and expatriates. The number of expatriate executives stood at 78,000 as of June, 2007, with an average of more than 1,800 permits per month.[citation needed] Long-term foreign residents include 250,000 mainland Chinese, 85,000 Indians (most of whom are Sikh), of whom more than 80% have dual Thai citizenship [8], 30,000 Japanese (the largest Japanese population in outside Japan), 25,000 Americans, 45,000 Europeans (the second largest number in any Asian city after Singapore),[citation needed] 15,000 Taiwanese, 20,000 South Koreans, 6,000 Nigerians, 7,500 Australians, 12,000 people of Arabic speaking countries, 20,000 Malaysians, 4,000 Singaporeans, 5,000 Filipinos, and 800 New Zealanders. There are approximately 400,000–600,000 illegal immigrants from Cambodia, Myanmar, Russia, Ukraine, Pakistan, Nigeria, India, Bangladesh, China, and other countries.[citation needed] A vast majority of the population, 92%, is Buddhist. The rest are Muslim (6%), Christian (1%), Jewish (300 residents), Hindu/Sikh (0.6%), and others. There are some 400 Buddhist temples, 55 mosques, 10 churches, 2 Hindu Temples, 2 synagogues and 1 Sikh gurudwara in .
Population
1880 255,000
1910 365,000
1 April 1919 437,294
15 July 1929 713,384
23 May 1937 890,453
25 April 1947 1,178,881

Population
25 April 1960 2,136,435
1 April 1970 3,077,361
1 April 1980 4,697,071
1 April 1990 5,882,411
1 April 2000 6,320,174
1 January 2005 6,642,566
1 July 2007 8,160,522

[edit] Administration

is one of two special administrative areas in , the other being Pattaya, in which citizens vote to choose their governor, unlike in ’s 75 other provinces (changwat). In the 2004 gubernatorial election, Apirak Kosayothin was elected governor.

The urban sprawl of the greater Metropolitan Area extends beyond the borders of province, spilling into the neighbouring provinces of Nonthaburi, Samut Prakan, Pathum Thani, Nakhon Pathom and . The province as it is today was created in 1972 when the previous province, changwat Phra Nakhon, merged with Thonburi province.
Khet map
Khet map

The seal of the city shows the god Indra riding in the clouds on Erawan, a mythological elephant-shaped creature. In his hand Indra holds a lightning bolt, which is his weapon to drive away drought. The seal is based on a painting done by Prince Naris. The tree symbol of is Ficus benjamina.

is subdivided into 50 districts (khet, also sometimes called amphoe in the other provinces), which are further subdivided into 154 kwaeng (แขวง, equivalent to tambon in other provinces). Each district is managed by a district chief appointed by the governor. District councils, elected to four-year terms, serve as advisory bodies to their respective district chiefs.

There is also an elected Metropolitan Council, which has power over municipal ordinances and the city’s budget. The last elections for local councils in were held on 23 July 2006.

See also: local elections, 2006

[edit] Transportation
Boats and ferries near the Rama VIII Bridge.
Boats and ferries near the Rama VIII Bridge.

[edit] River and canals network

An elaborate network of canals known as khlongs gave the nickname “Venice of the East” at a time when most transportation was by boat. Today, nearly all of the canals have been filled in and converted into streets. While many khlongs still exist with people living along them and markets often being operated along the banks, most are severely polluted.[9] A notable khlong market is the floating market in Taling Chan district. Through downtown runs the Khlong Saen Saeb, which has a canal boat service, the most extensive of which is the Chao Phraya Boat with as many as thirty stops along the both banks of the Saen Saeb. However, there are limitations as the further north the route is the farther apart the stations are, impeding the ability of this water taxi to function as a true mass transit system.

[edit] Roads

Several elevated highways, newly rebuilt intersections, and many partially finished road and rail projects dot the landscape around greater , but have done little to overcome the notorious traffic jams on ’s surface roads as private vehicle usage continues to outstrip infrastructure development. Many city residents complain that they spend more than half their waking day on the streets on an open-air city bus.[citation needed]

also includes many shopping and business roads like the Sukhumvit Road which includes highrise business buildings, apartments, and shopping malls, Sukhumvit Road is where many foreigners like to come shopping. The Wireless Road or Thanon Wittayu include the Stock Exchange of and many business buildings like the All Seasons Place Complex which includes the Conrad , a shopping mall, and many other business offices. The Thanon Khaosan or Khaosan Road is also well-known by foreigners. One of the popular shopping roads for teenagers is Rama I road, which has the Siam Paragon, Siam Square, and the Siam Discovery Center.

may be known as one of the worst cities in the for traffic, but it has built an expressway or second-level road on almost every road in the city center, and there continue to be plans for new expressways monthly. The government has also tried many times to improve the state of the traffic in the city center, which can sometimes take an hour just to move one kilometer.[citation needed]

[edit] Inner-City Buses

A regular bus service is provided by the Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) and it operates throughout as well as to adjoining provinces around the clock on certain routes. Public buses are plentiful and cheap, with a minimum fare of 7 baht to most destinations within metropolitan . Air-conditioned buses have minimum and maximum fares of 11 and 24 baht, respectively. Air-conditioned micro-buses charge a flat fare of 25 baht all routes. A Bus Route Map is available at bookshops.

[edit] Rail systems
Route Map of BTS, MRT and Airport Link SRT in the near future.
Route Map of BTS, MRT and Airport Link SRT in the near future.
A Skytrain approaching Sala Daeng Station.
A Skytrain approaching Sala Daeng Station.

On the birthday of HM King Rama IX, 5 December 1999, an elevated two-line Skytrain (officially called BTS) metro system was opened. The remains of a failed elevated railroad project (the Hopewell project) can still be seen all the way from the main railroad station out towards Don Mueang Airport. Due to the Asian financial crisis of 1997 construction was halted and the concrete pillars were left unused.

The MRT subway system opened for use in July 2004. The MRT connects the northern train station of Sue to the Hua Lamphong central station near the city center, while also going through the eastern of . It connects to the BTS system at BTS stations Mo Chit, Asok, and Sala Daeng. Many stations have various designs and concepts with many to install retail shops and transit malls to draw more income from commuters.[citation needed]

Political bickering and profiteering also has stalled many promised and planned urban rail projects including Skytrain and subway extensions, initially planned to open by the end of 2002 (for Skytrain), and projects that are completed often are very much delayed.[citation needed] Currently, transit and development projects initiated by ousted former Prime Minister Thaksin are gaining in popularity with the currently elected government, and have a of being resumed and extended.

A new high speed elevated railroad called the Airport Link, currently under construction, will link the city with the new Airport. The announced has been pushed to back to 2009. Along with the airport itself, the was a Thaksin pet project.[citation needed] The Airport is to be operated by the State of . It will provide a 28.5 km (17.7 mi) link between the new airport and the City Air Terminal (CAT) at Makkasan with connections to the BTS at Phaya Thai and MRT at Petchburi. There are plans to extend the line to Don Mueang and Rangsit, but again, this is very dependent on the political situation.
The MRT.
The MRT.
Airport Link train.
Airport Link train.

Plans have been approved for a further extension of the BTS Silom line from Wong Wian Yai to Bangwah (4.5 km/2.8 mi), Sumrong to Samut Prakarn (8 km/5.0 mi), Mo Chit to Saphan Mai (11.9 km/7.4 mi) and the to Phran Nok (7.7 km/4.8 mi). This includes five underground stations in the Rattanakosin area. The State of has also been given approval to complete the Dark Red and Light Green lines. Alongside, MRT has also begun construction on two new lines, the Purple line from Yai to Sue, and the Blue line from Hua Lampong to Khae and Ta Pra. Much of this is of a government effort to reduce reliance on personal vehicles in the hope of linking the city within ten years by a ring road of rail systems.[citation needed]

For intercity travel by train, most passengers begin their trips at Hua Lamphong at the southern end of the MRT. Here, trains connect to Malaysia in the south, Mai to the north, and Nong Khai to the northeast and beyond to Laos which due to open within 2008.

[edit] Bus service

Virtually all cities and provinces are easily reached by bus from . For destinations in the southwest and the west, buses leave from the Terminal, west of the city in the Thonburi area. For destinations in the , such as Pattaya, Ko Samet and Ko Chang, buses leave from the Eastern Bus Terminal at Ekkamai. For all destinations north and northeast, the Terminal is at Mo Chit. Long distance bus service has become safer as drivers are changed and most no longer take methamphetamines such as Ya Baa to stay awake, which often caused excessive speeding and passing on dangerous undivided roads.[citation needed] ’s less accessible southern terminal was recently moved even farther out. Though is well connected to other cities, getting to the bus terminals often are a challenge in themselves.

[edit] Airports
main terminal
main terminal
Don Mueang International Airport
Don Mueang International Airport

is one of ’s most important air transport hubs. In 2005, more than ninety airlines served Don Mueang International Airport (IATA: DMK; ICAO: VTBD) and over 38,000,000 passengers, 160,000 flights and 700,000 tons of were handled at this airport per year.[citation needed] It was the 18th busiest airport in the , second busiest in by passenger volume, 15th busiest in the and fourth busiest in in international passenger volume. Don Mueang consistently ranked 19th in the in traffic, and seventh in the - region. Don Mueang is considered to be one of the ’s oldest international airports, its in March 1914 making it almost twenty years older than Heathrow. It has three terminals and is located about 30 km (19 mi) north from the heart of .

On 28 September 2006, Airport (IATA: BKK; ICAO: VTBS), became ’s official international airport, replacing Don Mueang. Pronounced Suwannaphum (RTGS), or loosely Su-wan-na-poom, the airport is located of the city center in Phli district, Samut .

The progress of Airport dates back to the early 1970s when a large plot of land 8,000 acres (32 km²) was bought. A student uprising in October of the same year prevented further progress with the development when the military government of Thanom Kittikachorn was subsequently overthrown. After several military coups and the Asian financial crisis of 1997, construction finally began in 2002, after five years of clearing the site. The first flights landed in September 2006, shortly after another military coup. Its two parallel runways are connected by the five concourses of the main terminal building. The airport features a 132.2-metre (434 ft)-tall tower, the tallest in and one meter (3.2 ft) taller than International Airport tower. It is the tallest stand alone purpose built tower in the . [10] Airports of Plc. (AoT) have announced another terminal to accommodate a further fifteen million passengers. This will be of Phase 2 of the airport, which is expected to begin construction in three to five years. The main airline of is Thai Airways International.

Much of the construction of Airport took place during the premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra, who took personal responsibility for its timely completion. Despite a “ceremonial” on the planned , construction was over a year late. Continuing controversy surrounds the quality of planning and construction; accusations include cracks in the runway, overheated buildings, a severe shortage of toilet facilities and lengthy passenger walks to departure gates. The fact that the airport is already overcrowded and near its maximum capacity less than a year after is another concern.

Don Mueang remains in use as a base of the Royal Thai Air Force. Thai Airways and most of the low-cost airlines now use the airport for domestic flights, in an effort to ease congestion at , until the next terminal is opened.[11]

[edit] Transport network

* Khlong Saen Saep Boat
* Chao Phraya Boat
* Noi Longtail Boat
* Sathon-Khlong Toei Boat
* Sathon-Wat Dao Khanong Boat
* Sathon-Samut Prakan Boat
* Khlong Phasi Charoen Boat (Under new testing)
* Khlong Lat Phrao Boat (Under new testing)
* Khlong Prem Prachakhon Boat (Under new testing)
* Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem Boat (Under new testing)
* BTS or Skytrain
* MRT or Metro
* SRT or State of
* BRT () or Bus Rapid Transit
* BTS Links
* BMTA or Bus
* Airport Link (Under construction, finish 5 December 2009)
* SRT Lines (Proposed, finish 2012)

[edit] Taxis

Taxis cruising city streets are metred. They charge a minimum of 35 baht for the first 3 kilometres, and approximately 5 baht per kilometre thereafter. However, as of June 2008, there are plans to raise the minimum fair to 40 baht. Passengers must pay tolls in the case of using an expressway.

There is a taxi scam at the airport. Tourists are advised to not follow the advice of anyone who approaches and offers ‘their’ taxi service – they are scammers.[citation needed] Visitors usually queue up and use the airport taxi service, anyone who is unsure where this is, may approach a security guard.

[edit] Tuk-Tuks

These three-wheeled ‘open-air’ motorised taxis are popular for short journeys. Fares must be bargained in advance. Minimum fares, for journeys of up to 3 kilometres, are approximately 30 baht. River Taxis

Taxis that are even more unusual, though equally convenient, are the river taxis that ply the . Some are just cross river ferries, but others serve the many landing stages on both banks and cover a route that goes up as far as the northern suburb of Nonthaburi. There is also a canal boat taxi along the Saen Saep Canal.

[edit] Motorbike Taxis

These are very popular in and especially for travel within the long Sois (lanes). For longer distances, the cost is roughly the same as taxis.

[edit] Songthaews (public passenger pick-up vehicles)

These can be found in some areas of usually from short distance to long distance depending upon the area and the fixed route. They are cheap and reliable.
[show]
v • d • e
Public transport systems in
Metro lines (MRT)
MRT Blue line · MRT Orange line (Planned) · MRT Yellow line (Planned) · MRT Purple Line (Planned) · MRT Brown Line (Planned) · MRT Pink Line (Planned)
Skytrain lines (BTS)
Silom Line (dark green) · Sukhumvit Line (light green)
SRT Red Lines
Red Line (Planned) · Light Red Line (Planned)
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Line 1 (Under construction) · Line 2 (Under construction) · Line 3 (Under construction) · Line 4 (Planned) · Line 5 (Planned)
Airport Link (SAL)
SAL Line (Under construction)
bus system
bus lines
Boat Lines
Khlong Saen Saep Boat · Sathon-Klong Toei Boat · Golden Mount Line · NIDA Line · Chao Phraya Boat · Noi Longtail Boat · Sathon-Wat Dao Khanong Boat · Sathon-Samut Prakan Boat · Khlong Phasi Charoen Boat · Khlong Lat Phrao Boat · Khlong Prem Prachakhon Boat · Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem Boat

[edit] Education

See also: List of universities

The majority of the country’s universities, both public and private, are located in and/or around the capital. Chulalongkorn University and Thammasat University are at the forefront of tertiary education. The two are both public universities and have been a foundation for young thinkers for nearly a century. Over the past few decades however, the general trend of pursuing a university degree has prompted new universities to crop up and meet the needs of the Thai people. became not only a place where immigrants and provincial Thais flock to for job opportunities, but a chance to receive a university degree. Ramkhamhaeng University emerged in 1971 as the only open university then, it has the highest enrolment of students compared with any other Thai university. Ramkhamhaeng was one of the Thai governments ways to deal with the rise in a demand for tertiary education. The growth of universities has stemmed tens and hundreds of other universities and colleges in the metropolitan area. Vocational/technical colleges have recently seen their fair share of success. In recent years, a large number of private institutions primarily with western ties and exchange programs have made their way to the capital. The rise in the number of schools offering English teaching have raised the bar for many state-owned institutions to meet up with private standards.

Despite such competition, Chulalongkorn and Thammasat remain the nation’s leading institutions. Kasetsart University, Mahidol University, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi,Assumption University among others were ranked in the top 500 of THES - QS University Rankings for 2007. also plays host to the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), built as an international co-operative institute between - nations. There are also many Buddhist universities branching into the realm of religious studies in which has taken a leading role.

Amidst all this however, the tertiary education scene in is still over swamped with non-Bangkokian’s. Officials currently stress the need for a revamping of the Thai educational system. Education has long been a prime factor in the centralization of and will play a vital role in the government’s efforts to decentralize the country.

[edit] Health care and medical centers

See also: List of hospitals in

The Royal Siriraj Hospital
The Royal Siriraj Hospital

has a large number of hospitals and medical centers, which include eight of the country’s fifteen medical schools. Many hospitals in act as tertiary care centers, receiving referrals from distant parts of the country. Lately, especially in the private sector, there has been much growth in medical tourism, with many hospitals providing services specifically catering to foreigners.

The acclaimed Bumrungrad Hospital is the main international class hospital on Sukumvit Road, and is popular with expats, wealthy Thais and medical tourists. Its closest competitors are Samithivej Hospitaland and Hospital Medical Center. All 3 of which have achieved accreditation from the prestigious Joint Commission International (JCI), ensuring therefore that their standards are of the highest in the . [12]

[edit] Tourism

is considered to be one of the ’s top tourist hotspots. According to Travel and Leisure magazine[13] it is ’s best tourist destination, the third in the in 2006 and overall best city in the in 2008[14]. It is also voted the best city in according to Conde Nast Traveler magazine.[15] is ’s major tourist gateway, which means that the majority of foreign tourists arrive in . The Tourism Authority of hopes to draw 15 million tourists in 2007, up from 11.6 million in 2005. [16] The city boasts some of the country’s most visited historical venues such as the Grand Palace, Wat Pho, and Wat Arun. There are numerous projects to maintain ’s historic sites in the Rattanakosin area and river districts.

[edit] Palaces and Wats
A panoramic view of the Grand Palace
A panoramic view of the Grand Palace
Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall, a 19th century styled building with a traditional Thai stucco roof, located within the Grand Palace compound.
Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall, a 19th century styled building with a traditional Thai stucco roof, located within the Grand Palace compound.
Wat Arun, one of the most visited temples in .
Wat Arun, one of the most visited temples in .

Main article: List of palaces in

The Metropolitan Area is home to two capitals of : the area historically known as Rattanakosin, and the modern . There are a large number of palaces in . Several are still in use by the Thai royal family, while others are now open to the public and some have become government buildings or universities.

The king’s official residence is the Grand Palace, which dates to 1782 and has housed ’s monarchs for over 150 years. Up to the early 20th century and before the 1932 Revolution, the complex was key in Thai government: it included royal courts, administrative branches, and was similar in layout to that of previous Thai capitals. Today, it is one of the most visited locations in .[citation needed] Within the complex is the Chakri Mahaprasat Hall and Wat Phra Kaew, which houses the Emerald Buddha and is considered the most important temple in . Chitralada Palace is the residence of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) and Queen Sirikit.

Of the hundreds of wats located in , only a few are notable. When King Taksin led his troops out of Ayutthaya and into Thon Buri, they took refuge in Wat Arun. This pre-Thon Buri era structure rises to 85 metres (279 ft) and has held the status of tallest structure in for longer than any other modern skyscraper[citation needed].

Wat Pho, which houses the Temple of the Reclining Buddha or Wat Phra Chetuphon, is located behind the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in the Grand Palace. It is the largest temple in and named for its huge reclining Buddha measuring 46 metres (151 ft) long and covered in gold leaf. The Buddha’s feet alone are 3 metres (10 ft) long.

Wat Suthat is one of the oldest temples and the site of the original Giant Swing. A huge teak arch, all that remains of the original swing, stands on the grounds in front of the temple. The swing was used in a ceremony to give thanks for a good rice harvest.

Within Wat Saket is the Golden Mount, or Phu Khao Thong, an unusual temple that houses Buddha relics within its 58-metre-high chedi surmounted by a golden cupola. Built by King Rama I just outside the new city walls, the late-18th century temple served as the capital’s crematorium. During the next hundred years, the temple became a dumping ground for some 60,000 plague victims.[citation needed]

[edit] Museums

National Gallery Museum (พิพิธภัณฑสถานแห่งชาติ หอศิลป) is a former location of the Royal Thai Mint and now exhibits collections of both traditional Thai and contemporary arts by past as well as present famous artists of . Oil paintings by His Majesty the King are also exhibited here.

National Museum (พิพิธภัณฑสถานแห่งชาติ พระนคร): A former palace of the Wang Na or second king – Kromphraratchawangbowon Mahasurasinghanat – built simultaneously with the Grand Palace, the complex comprises several major throne halls such as Phra Thinang Siwamok Phiman, Phra Thinang Phutthaisawan and Phra Thinang Itsara Winitchai.

Suan Pakkad Palace (วังสวนผักกาด) this complex of five Thai-style houses was once the residence of one of ’s leading art collectors, Prince Chumbhot of Nagara Svarga. It houses an extensive collection of Asian art and antiques, including items from the prehistoric Ban civilisation, and also an impressive collection of seashells. Khon (classical Thai masked dance) Museum and Traditional Thai Music Museum are also established here.

Vimanmek Mansion Museum (พระที่นั่งวิมานเมฆ): This is the ’s largest golden teak building located in the compound of the Dusit Palace on Ratchawithi Road. The three-story royal mansion has 81 rooms, halls and ante-chambers containing fin de siecle royal memorabilia.

[edit] Public Parks

Queen Sirikit Park (สวนสมเด็จพระนางเจ้าสิริกิติ์): It was built to commemorate the 60th birthday anniversary of HM Queen Sirikit. A big pool in the park contains three fountains and a fine collection of both Thai and foreign lotuses.

Lumpini Park (สวนลุมพินี): This was a huge open space once belonging to King Rama VI, who issued a royal command to turn the area into a public park as a gift to residents.

Princess Mother Memorial Park (อุทยานเฉลิมพระเกียรติสมเด็จพระศรีนครินทราบรมราชชนนี): It was built near the Wat Anongkharam community where Somdej Phra Srinagarindra Boromarajajonani, HRH the Princess Mother had resided during her childhood. The park comprises a full scale model of the Princess Mother’s house and the old buildings renovated as exhibition halls displaying the life story of Her Royal Highness the Princess Mother as well as the history of the Wat Anongkharam community.

[edit] Zoos/Animal Farms

Dusit Zoo (สวนสัตว์ดุสิต): ’s oldest zoo contains a collection of popular African and Asian mammals and birds in an ornamental garden.

Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute (Snake Farm) (สถานเสาวภาสภากาชาดไทย): Located near Chulalongkorn Hospital, this institute contains a collection of poisonous snakes which are “milked” daily for their venom in order to produce invaluable anti-snakebite serum.

Siam Ocean (สยามโอเชี่ยนเวิลด์): The largest aquarium in , exhibiting over 30,000 marine animals from all over the and featuring a wide range of rare and exotic species.

[edit] Shopping Areas/Markets

Shopping in is not limited to one or two major streets. There are many areas throughout affording ample choices and easy access. The following is just a selection of some of the principal shopping areas.

Ploenchit-Ratchaprasong (เพลินจิต-ราชประสงค์): Top department stores and luxury shopping malls are concentrated in the area, namely Central, Gaysorn Plaza, Isetan, Zen, Erawan , Peninsula Plaza, all of which together make the largest shopping promenade in . Furthermore, Central Plaza and Narayana Phand Pavilion, host the official handicraft centre selling items from all parts of the country. Ratchaprasong intersection is the gateway to several shopping areas such as Phloenchit-Sukhumvit, Siam Square-Mahboonkrong, Silom and Pratunam-Phetchaburi.

Silom-Surawong-Patpong (สีลม-สุรวงศ์-พัฒพงษ์): Silom Road is the main artery of ’s commercial heart and is paralleled by Surawong Road, while Patpong runs crosswise between the two. In addition to housing dozens of specialist shops and boutiques representing all the major buys, this area also boasts many branches of well-known retailers and several shopping plazas. Street stalls also abound, most notably at Patpong’s famous night market.

Pratunam-Phetchaburi (ประตูน้ำ-เพชรบุรี): A highlight in the district is Pratunam market, one of ’s biggest centres for ready-to-wear clothing.

[edit] Cruise

The & ’s Canals (Khlongs): Nineteenth-century was laced with canals, giving the capital the designation ‘Venice of the East’. Surviving canals, and the provide memorable vignettes of traditional waterborne way-of-life that has remained essentially unchanged over the centuries. The river and canals may be conveniently explored by chartered boat or cruise.

Dinner Cruise: Riverine offers some of the capital’s most arresting sights, particularly at night when the weather is cooler and light reflections bestow the with flickering lights.

[edit] Cultural Performance

Jim Thompson Museum (พิพิธภัณฑ์จิม ทอมป์สัน): This collection of traditional Thai-style houses, fashioned into one dwelling, belongs to the man who helped restore the Thai silk industry after War II, and today, preserved as a museum, contains a priceless collection of Asian objects d’ art.

[edit] Theatres

Chalerm Krung Royal Theatre (เฉลิมกรุงรอยัลเธียเตอร์) is located on Charoen Krung Road (New Road) near the Old Siam Plaza. Thai dramas and plays are usually held while Khon or Thai musical dance drama is a special event that is staged occasionally.

Traditional Thai Puppet Theatre (นาฏยศาลา หุ่นละครเล็ก) presents the Hun Lakhon Lek puppet show. The establishment of this theatre was inspired by the intention of Master Sakhon Yangkhieosot or Joe Louis, a National Artist of 1996, who wishes to preserve the art of operating Hun Lakhon Lek puppets. Hun Lakhon Lek usually performs the story of Ramakian, the Thai version of the Ramayana epic. Sakhon Nattasin is currently the only performing troupe of Hun Lakhon Lek in . The troupe received the Tourism Award presented by the Tourism Authority of (TAT) in 2000 in the category of Recreational Attraction.

Patravadi Theatre (ภัทราวดีเธียเตอร์) Renowned for its lavish productions, this outdoor theatre has gained popularity through its modern adaptations of classical Asian literature, with each play demonstrating an ingenious blend of various theatrical techniques.

Siam Niramit (สยามนิรมิต) has state-of-the-art cultural performances which have achieved international standards. It uses special techniques integrated with drama to depict the history of each region of including depictions about hells, the forest of Himmaphan, heavens and lands beyond imagination from Thai literature. There is also a spectacular performance of ’s arts and cultural heritage. The show is staged by more than 150 performers in a luxurious theatre with a capacity of more than 2,000 seats.

Temples for the masses

Grand Palace and Wat Phra Kaeo
Tel: 222-0094, 222-6889, 222-2208)
This inner-city riverine landmark contains several buildings with highly detailed architectural features. Wat Phra Kaeo within the same compound, is a treasure house of Thai arts, and houses the Emerald Buddha, the most revered Buddha image in .
To help tourists enjoy their tour of the Grand Palace, a Personal Audio Guide can be rented at 100 Baht for two hours. Discs are available in seven languages-English, French, German, Spanish, Russian, Japanese and Mandarin.
The complex is open daily from 8.30 a.rn.-3.30 p.m. Admission fee is 200 Baht. (including a ticket to Vimanmek Royal Mansion). Proper attire is essential.

Wat Mahathat
Tel: 222-6011, 222-8004
This old temple was built in the reign of King Rama I. It is located on Na Phrathat Road near Thammasat University. The temple houses Mahachulalongkorn Buddhist University, one of the two highest seats of Buddhist learning in and also offers meditation classes for foreigners.
The temple complex is open daily from 9.00 a.m.- 5.00 p.m.

Wat Pho
Tel: 222-0933
This large and extensive temple neighbours the Grand Palace enclave on Thai Wang Road and contains a gigantic gold plated Reclining Buddha some 46 meters long and 15 meters high with inlaid mother of pearl soles. The temple is also regarded as the first center of public education and is sometimes called ’s first university.
It is open to the public daily from 9.00 a.m.-5.00 p.m. Admission fee is 20 Baht.

Wat Arun (Temple of Dawn)
Tel: 465-5640
This famous Chao Phraya riverbank landmark diagonally opposite the Grand Palace, is best known for a porcelain encrusted 79 meter central pagoda (phra prang) which sparkles in the sun. The temple can be reached either by Arun Amarin Road or by boat from Tha Tien Pier near Wat Pho.
Wat Arun is open daily from 08:30 - 17:30.

detail
Wat Ratchabophit
The temple is located on Fuang Nakhon Road near Wat Pho. Built by King Rama V in 1869, it was in keeping with tradition that each monarch constructed a temple to mark his reign. The temple is a mixture of local and western styles, showing an awakening interest in new ideas and a desire to experiment with them. The exterior of the chapel is in the That style, but the interior is decorated in the European style.

Wat Suthat and ‘The Giant Swing
Located on Bamrung Muang Road, this temple is noted for its superb 19th century murals in the main chapel. The distinctive Giant Swing outside the temple was once used in Brahmanic ceremonies long since discontinued. Nearby shops stock a very comprehensive range of Buddhist religious supplies.

Wat Thepthidaram
Located on Mahachai Road, the temple was built in the reign of King Rama III with a mixture of Chinese architectural styles. Sunthon Phu, one of ’s greatest poets, had resided in this temple during his monk hood from 1840-1842. His residence is now open to the public.

Wat Ratchanatdaram
Located on Mahachai Road, the temple was built in the reign of King Rama III in 1846. Loha Prasat, the temple’s main attraction, standing 36 meters high with 37 surrounding spires, is the only one of its kind left in the . Next to the temple is the area for welcoming an important foreign guest and a memorial, statue of King Rama III.

Wat Indravihan
Located in the Khun Phrom area on Wisutkasat Road, this temple is well known for a huge standing Buddha image called Luang Pho To. The image, built in the reign of King Rama IV, is 32 meters tall and 10 meters wide. The topknot of the Buddha image contains a relic of Lord Buddha brought from Sri Lanka.

Wat Bowon Niwet
This temple is located on Phra Sumen Road in the Lamphu area. Built in 1829, it is the shrine-hall of Phra Phutthachinnasi, a very beautiful Buddha image which was moulded in about 1357. Wat Bowon Niwet is one of the most important temples of , whose one-time chief abbot was King Rama IV before he ascended the throne. Other Chakn kings who had resided here during their monk hood include King Rama IV and King Rama VII, as well as His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej.

Wat Benchamabophit (The Marble Temple)
Tel: 281-2501
Located on Si Ayutthaya Road, near Chitralada Palace, this unique marble temple was constructed during the reign of King Rama V. It employs European ecclesiastic details, such as stained glass windows, and contains a superb cloister collection of bronze Buddha images.

Wat Saket and The Golden Mountain
Details
Wat Saket’s major feature is the Golden Mount, dating from the 1800s, which overlooks Ratchadamnoen Avenue. The golden chedi houses relics of Lord Buddha and offers a panoramic view of historic .
Admission to Wat Saket is free except for the final approach to the Golden Mountain summit;
which costs 10 Baht.

detail
Wat Trai Mit
Located at the end of Chinatown’s Yaowarat Road near Hualamphong Station, this temple houses an ancient solid gold seated Buddha image of the Sukhothai Period, three meters in height and weighing five and a half tons.

Erawan Shrine
Located on Ratchadamri Road, the shrine devoted to Phra Phrom, a Hindu god, is greatly revered by Thai people. Laced flowers and small wooden elephants as well as Thai dancing performances are always offered to the statue by grateful devotees.

Wat Paramal Ylkawat
was constructed in Mon style over 200 years ago. King Rama V commanded to renovate the monastery dedicated to his grandmother and to construct Phra Maha Raman Chedi (a chedi in Mon style) to house Buddha relics. The principal Buddha of the monastery is carved with marble in Mon style, so it is also called “Wat Mon” (Mon Temple).

Wat Phal Lom
Wat Phal Lom is well-known for the magnificent bot (ordination hall) in the Ayutthaya style. Some parts have been changed due to renovation. Behind the bot, there is a chedi in Mon style.

Wat Sao Thong Thong
Wat Sao Thong Thong houses an old Ayutthaya style chedi and was the first secondary school in Pak Kret.

Wat Suwannaram
Wat Suwannaram is a big royal monastery constructed during the reign of King Rama I and was subsequently renovated during the reign of King Rama III. Inside the bot, there are murals depicting the jataka, deities and the Buddha image in Subduing Mara Posture. These works of art of the early Rattanakosin period (1 9th century) are considered as the best surviving mural painting in .

Wat Si Sudaram or Wat Chi Pakhao
Wat Si Sudaram or Wat Chi Pakhao was built during the Ayutthaya period and was renovated by King Rama I. The temple houses some interesting buildings including Tarn Nak Daeng (a pavilion). Sala Kan Parian (a sermon hall) , and the residence of Sunthon Phu (the greatest poet of the Rattanakosin period). Moreover, visitors can enjoy feeding a number of freshwater fish here.

Wat Chalo
Wat Chalo is assumed to have been constructed during the Sukhothai period as some Buddha images in Sukhothai style were found in front of the bot.

Wat Pho O
Wat Pho O is a monastery constructed during the reign of King Rama III. The top of the bot was made of wood; mural painting inside the bot was made during the existence of the Nonthaburi school of painting.

Wat 0l Chang
Wat OI Chang houses a 200-year-old Buddha sole, which was found by Phra Khru Nawa Kam Koson (the first abbot of this monastery) while traveling in Phitsanuloke province during 1986 A.D.

Wat Kaeo Fa
Wat Kaeo Fa is an ancient temple located in an open area next to Khiong Noi. According to archaeologists, many buildings and art objects here were constructed in the Ayutthaya style; for example; the Ubosot, the Buddha image, the boundary stones, the boundary wall, the chedi behind the bot and the chedi with 12 cornered indented pillar. The monastery later was renovated during the Rattanakosin period.

Wat Prasat
Wat Prasat was built during the Late Ayutthaya period. The monastery is well-known for its well-preserved mural painting made by artisans of the Nonthaburi school, and the gable made of carved timber. Visitors who come along by boat have to walk about 2 kilometers through orchards from the pier.

Wat Amphawan
Wat Amphawan was constructed during the Late Ayutthaya period. This temple houses Ho Trai (a hall for keeping scriptures) which is situated in the middle of a pond. The building was made of wood in magnificent Thai style.

Wat Pak Nam
Wat Pak Nam is famous for amulets and is always crowded with a number of people who come to make merit during the weekend.

Wat Ko
Wat Ko houses an old viharn (chapel) which was registered as an archaeological site.

Related Blogs

  • Related Blogs on

This entry was posted on Monday, October 13th, 2008 at 12:48 pm and is filed under Thailand. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.

Leave a Reply


elgoog
310 433-8813
reverse phone lookup
phone number lookup