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The city is named after the river (old : гра́д Моско́в, literally “the city by the Moskva River”). The origin of the name is unknown, although several theories exist.[3] One theory suggests that the source of the name is an ancient Finnic language, in which it means “dark” and “turbid”. The first reference to dates from 1147 when Yuri Dolgoruki called upon the prince of the Novgorod Republic to “come to me, brother, to .”[4]

Nine years later, in 1156, Prince Yuri Dolgoruki of Rostov ordered the construction of a wooden wall, which had to be rebuilt multiple times, to surround the emerging city.[5] After the sacking of 1237–1238, when the burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants, recovered and became the capital of an in 1327.[6] Its favourable position on the headwaters of the contributed to steady expansion. developed into a stable and prosperous principality for many years and attracted a large number of refugees from across Russia.
The Kremlin and the Moskva River.
The Kremlin and the Moskva River.

Under Ivan I the city replaced Tver as a political centre of Vladimir-Suzdal and became the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol-Tatar rulers. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan. Unlike other principalities, was not divided among his sons but was passed intact to his eldest. However, ’s opposition against foreign domination grew. In 1380, prince Dmitri Donskoi of led a united army to an important victory over the in the Battle of Kulikovo which was not decisive, though. Only two years later was sacked by khan Tokhtamysh. In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control, allowing to become the centre of power in Russia.[7] Under Ivan III the city became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of present-day Russia and other lands.

In 1571, the Crimean attacked and sacked , burning everything but the Kremlin.[8]

In 1609, the Swedish army led by Count Jacob De la Gardie and Evert Horn started their march from Velikiy Novgorod toward to help Tsar Vasili Shuiski, entered in 1610 and suppressed the rebellion against the Tsar, but leaving it early next year 1611, following which the Polish-Lithuanian army invaded. During Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618) hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski entered after defeated Russians in battle of Klushino.
Kremlin Embankment and skyline with Cathedral of Christ the Saviour on the left and Kremlin on the right
Kremlin Embankment and skyline with Cathedral of Christ the Saviour on the left and Kremlin on the right

The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of from the Polish-Lithuanian invaders (1612), the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Uprising of 1682.

The plague of 1654–1656 had killed half the population of .[9] The city ceased to be Russia’s capital in 1712, after the founding of Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great on the Baltic coast in 1703. When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, the Muscovites burned the city and evacuated, as Napoleon’s forces were approaching on 14 September. Napoleon’s army, plagued by hunger, cold and poor supply lines, was forced to retreat and was nearly annihilated by the devastating winter and sporadic attacks by military forces.

In January 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or Mayor, was officially introduced in , and Alexander Adrianov became ’s first official mayor. Following the Revolution of 1917, on 12 March 1918, became the capital of the Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union less than five years later.[10] During the Great Patriotic War (a part of World War II and the official name for the conflict, after German invasion of the ), the Soviet State Committee of Defence and the General Staff of the Red Army was located in .

In 1941, sixteen divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), twenty-five battalions (18,500 people) and four engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites. That November, the German Army Group Centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the Battle of . Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from 20 October the city was declared to be under siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defences, while the city was bombarded from the air. It is of some note that Stalin refused to leave the city, meaning the general staff and the council of people’s commissars remained in the city as well. Despite the siege and the bombings, the construction of ’s system, continued through the war and by the end of the war several new lines were opened.

On 1 May 1944, a medal For the defence of and in 1947 another medal In memory of the 800th anniversary of were instituted.

In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory in World War II, on 8 May 1965, was one of twelve Soviet cities awarded the title of the Hero City. In 1980, it hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which was boycotted by the United States and several other Western countries due to the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan in late 1979.

In 1991, was the scene of a coup attempt by the government members opposed to the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev. When the was dissolved in the same year, continued to be the capital of Russia.

Since then, the emergence of a market economy in has produced an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles. Besides the historical traits of , it has many different agricultural attributes. In 1998, it hosted the first World Youth Games. is the seat of power for the Federation. At the centre of the city, in Central Administrative Okrug, is the Kremlin, which houses the home of the President of Russia as well as many of the facilities for the national government. This includes numerous military headquarters and the headquarters of the Military District.

, like with any national capital, is also the host of all the foreign embassies and diplomats representing a multitude of nations in Russia. is designated as one of only two cities of Russia (the other one being Saint Petersburg). Among the 85 subjects of Russia, represents the most populated one and the smallest one in terms of area. Lastly, is located within the central economic region, one of twelve regions within Russia with similar economic goals.

The entire city of is headed by one mayor (Yuriy Luzhkov). It is divided into ten administrative okrugs and 123 districts. Nine of the ten administrative districts, except the City of Zelenograd (number 1 on the map), are located within City of main boundaries. All administrative okrugs and districts have their own coats of arms, flags, and elected head officials. Additionally, most districts have their own cable television, computer network, and official newspaper. In addition to the districts, there are Territorial Units with Special Status, or territories. These usually include areas with small or no permanent populations, such as the case with the All-Russia Exhibition Centre, the Botanical Garden, large parks, and industrial zones.

In recent years, some territories have been merged with different districts. There are no ethnic-specific regions in , as in the Chinatowns that exist in some European, North American and East Asian cities. And although districts are not designated by income, as with most cities, those areas that are closer to the city centre, stations or green zones are considered more prestigious.

[edit] Government

Main article: Administrative divisions of

Administrative okrugs of
Administrative okrugs of
View from the Stalin skyscraper in Kudrinskaya Square. The mayor’s highrise office (the former Comecon headquarters) is to the left, the government building to the right
View from the Stalin skyscraper in Kudrinskaya Square. The mayor’s highrise office (the former Comecon headquarters) is to the left, the government building to the right

is the seat of power for the Federation. At the centre of the city, in Central Administrative Okrug, is the Kremlin, which houses the home of the President of Russia as well as many of the facilities for the national government. This includes numerous military headquarters and the headquarters of the Military District. , like with any national capital, is also the host of all the foreign embassies and diplomats representing a multitude of nations in Russia. is designated as one of only two cities of Russia (the other one being Saint Petersburg). Among the 83 subjects of Russia, represents the most populated one and the smallest one in terms of area. Lastly, is located within the central economic region, one of twelve regions within Russia with similar economic goals.

The entire city of is headed by one mayor (Yuriy Luzhkov). It is divided into ten administrative okrugs and 123 districts. Nine of the ten administrative districts, except the City of Zelenograd (number 1 on the map), are located within City of main boundaries.

All administrative okrugs and districts have their own coats of arms, flags, and elected head officials. Additionally, most districts have their own cable television, computer network, and official newspaper.

In addition to the districts, there are Territorial Units with Special Status, or territories. These usually include areas with small or no permanent populations, such as the case with the All-Russia Exhibition Centre, the Botanical Garden, large parks, and industrial zones. In recent years, some territories have been merged with different districts. There are no ethnic-specific regions in , as in the Chinatowns that exist in some North American and East Asian cities. And although districts are not designated by income, as with most cities, those areas that are closer to the city centre, stations or green zones are considered more prestigious.

In addition to being the capital of Russia, is the administrative centre of Oblast. Since has the status of a city, it is administratively separate from the oblast.

[edit] Geography and climate

has a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfb) with warm, somewhat humid summers and long, cold winters. Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July and August are around 22 °C (72 °F), but for 1-2 weeks from may to september temperatures can be higher than 30 °C; in the winter, temperatures normally drop to approximately -10 °C (13 °F), though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above zero. The highest temperature ever recorded was 36.7 ℃ (98.1 ℉)[11] in August 1936, and the lowest ever recorded was -42.2 °C in January 1940.

Monthly rainfall totals vary minimally throughout the year, although the precipitation levels tend to be higher during the summer than during the winter. Due to the significant variation in temperature between the winter and summer months as well as the limited fluctuation in precipitation levels during the summer, is considered to be within a continental climate zone.

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